psychologywikiaorg-20200213-history
Melanocyte stimulating hormone
The melanocyte-stimulating hormones (collectively referred to as MSH) are a class of peptide hormones produced by cells in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland. Function They stimulate the production and release of melanin (melanogenesis) by melanocytes in skin and hair. MSH is also produced by a subpopulation of neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. MSH released into the brain by these neurons has effects on appetite and sexual arousal. In amphibians In some animals (such as the claw-toed frog Xenopus laevis) production of MSH is increased when the animal is in a dark location. This causes pigment to be dispersed in pigment cells in the toad's skin, making it become darker, and harder for predators to spot. The pigment cells are called melanophores and therefore, in amphibians, the hormone is often called melanophore-stimulating hormone. In humans An increase in MSH will cause a darkening in humans too. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone increases in humans during pregnancy. This, along with increased estrogens, causes increased pigmentation in pregnant women. In Cushing's syndrome high levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) production also leads to high MSH levels, which cause an abnormal darkening. Different levels of MSH are not the major cause of racial variation in skin colour. In many red headed people, and other people who do not tan well, there are variations in their hormone receptors, causing them to not respond to MSH in the blood. Structure of MSH Melanocyte-stimulating hormone belongs to a group called the melanocortins. This group includes ACTH, alpha-MSH, beta-MSH and gamma-MSH; these peptides are all cleavage products of a large precursor peptide called pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Alpha-MSH is the most important melanocortin for pigmentation. The different melanocyte-stimulating hormones have the following amino acid sequences: Synthetic MSH Two synthetic analogs of alpha-MSH, based upon a peptide called Melanotan are being developed for human use, one by an Australian company the other by a New Jersey company. * Alpha-MSH topical cream is being investigated as a possible therapeutic aid in the treatment of melanoma. * An additional analog called Melanotan II causes enhanced libido and erections in most male test subject and arousal with corresponding genital involvement in most female test subjects . Bremelanotide (formerly PT-141) the peptide that is being developed by the New Jersey company is a close analog of melanotan II that shares its aphrodisiac effects and is currently in clinical trials to treat erectile dysfunction and sexual arousal disorder. These effects are mediated by actions in the hypothalamus on neurons that express MC3 and MC4 receptors. See also *Melatonin References *Abbott, C. R., Rossi, M., Kim, M.-S., AlAhmed, S. H., Taylor, G. M., Ghatei, M. A., et al. (2000). Investigation of the melanocyte stimulating hormones on food intake: Lack of evidence to support a role for the melanocortin-3-receptor: Brain Research Vol 869(1-2) Jun 2000, 203-210. *Adan, R. A. H., & Vink, T. (2001). Drug target discovery by pharmacogenetics: Mutations in the melanocortin system and eating disorders: European Neuropsychopharmacology Vol 11(6) Dec 2001, 483-490. *Akiyama, K., & et al. (1984). Relative stability of !a-melanotropin and related analogues to rat brain homogenates: Peptides Vol 5(6) Nov-Dec 1984, 1191-1195. *Arai, H., Moroji, T., Kosaka, K., & Iizuka, R. (1986). Extrahypophyseal distribution of !a-melanocyte stimulating hormone (!a-MSH)-like immunoreactivity in postmortem brains from normal subjects and Alzheimer-type dementia patients: Brain Research Vol 377(2) Jul 1986, 305-310. *Arendt, J. (2007). Obituary: A tribute to Aaron Lerner: Chronobiology International Vol 24(2) Apr 2007, 383-385. *Argiolas, A., Melis, M. R., Murgia, S., & Schioth, H. B. (2000). ACTH- and alpha -MSH-induced grooming, stretching, yawning and penile erection in male rats: Site of action in the brain and role of melanocortin receptors: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 51(5) Mar 2000, 425-431. *Beckwith, B. E., Tinius, T. P., Hruby, V. J., Al-Obeidi, F., & et al. (1989). The effects of structure-conformation modifications of melanotropin analogs on learning and memory: D-amino acid substituted linear and cyclic analogs: Peptides Vol 10(2) Mar-Apr 1989, 361-368. *Bellinger, L., Cepeda-Benito, A., Bullard, R. L., & Wellman, P. J. (2003). Effect of i.c.v. infusion of the alpha -MSH agonist MTII on meal patterns in male rats following nicotine withdrawal: Life Sciences Vol 73(14) Aug 2003, 1861-1872. *Bressers, W. M. A., Kruk, M. R., Van Erp, A. M. M., Willekens-Bramer, D. C., Haccou, P., & Meelis, E. (1995). Time structure of self-grooming in the rat: Self-facilitation and effects of hypothalamic stimulation and neuropeptides: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 109(5) Oct 1995, 955-964. *Bull, D. F., Husband, A. J., Munro, K. I., Exton, M. S., & et al. (1994). Inhibition of endotoxin-induced temperature change by behavioral conditioning using !a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone as an unconditioned stimulus: Peptides Vol 15(1) Jan 1994, 139-142. *Bull, D. F., King, M. G., Pfister, H. P., & Singer, G. (1990). !a-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone conditioned suppression of a lipopolysaccharide-induced fever: Peptides Vol 11(5) Sep-Oct 1990, 1027-1031. *Charlton, B. G., Ferrier, I. N., Gibson, A. M., Biggins, J. A., & et al. (1987). A preliminary study of plasma !aMSH concentrations in depressed patients and normal subjects: Biological Psychiatry Vol 22(10) Oct 1987, 1276-1279. *Choi, Y.-H., Li, C., Page, K., Westby, A., Della-Fera, M. A., Lin, J., et al. (2003). Melanocortin receptors mediate leptin effects on feeding and body weight but not adipose apoptosis: Physiology & Behavior Vol 79(4-5) Sep 2003, 795-801. *Cline, M. A., & Smith, M. L. (2007). Central alpha -melanocyte stimulating hormone attenuates behavioral effects of neuropeptide Y in chicks: Physiology & Behavior Vol 91(5) Aug 2007, 588-592. *Cone, R. D. (2003). The melanocortin system. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences. *Contreras, P. C., Jacobson, A. E., Rice, K. C., & Farah, J. M. (1991). Phencyclidine increased release of !b-endorphin from anterior lobe of the pituitary: Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics Vol 258(3) Sep 1991, 837-841. *Contreras, P. C., & Takemori, A. E. (1984). Effect of prolyl-leucyl-glycinamide and !a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on levorphanol-induced analgesia, tolerance and dependence: Life Sciences Vol 34(26) Jun 1984, 2559-2566. *Cremer, C., de Barioglio, S. R., Civallero, G., & Celis, M. E. (1995). !a-MSH-induced behavior: Changes after diazepam and baclofen administration related with cyclic AMP levels: Peptides Vol 16(5) 1995, 821-825. *de Barioglio, S. R., Lezcano, N., & Celis, M. E. (1991). Alpha MSH-induced excessive grooming behavior involves a GABAergic mechanism: Peptides Vol 12(1) Jan-Feb 1991, 203-205. *de Graan, P. N., Spruijt, B. M., Eberle, A. N., Girard, J., & et al. (1986). ACTH-sub(1-4 ) potentiates !a-MSH-induced melanophore dispersion and excessive grooming: Peptides Vol 7(1) Jan-Feb 1986, 1-4. *de Wied, D. (1990). Neurotrophic effects of ACTH/MSH neuropeptides: Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis Vol 50(4-5) 1990, 353-366. *Dhillo, W. S., Small, C. J., Stanley, S. A., Jethwa, P. H., Seal, L. J., Murphy, K. G., et al. (2002). Hypothalamic Interactions Between Neuropeptide Y, Agouti-Related Protein, Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript and Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone In Vitro in Male Rats: Journal of Neuroendocrinology Vol 14(9) Sep 2002, 725-730. *Edwards, C. M. B., Abbott, C. R., Sunter, D., Kim, M.-S., Dakin, C. L., Murphy, K. G., et al. (2000). Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript, glucagon-like peptide-1 and corticotropin releasing factor inhibit feeding via agouti-related protein independent pathways in the rat: Brain Research Vol 866(1-2) Jun 2000, 128-134. *Elliott, J. C., Harrold, J. A., Brodin, P., Enquist, K., Backman, A., Bystrom, M., et al. (2004). Increases in melanin-concentrating hormone and MCH receptor levels in the hypothalamus of dietary-obese rats: Molecular Brain Research Vol 128(2) Sep 2004, 150-159. *Florijn, W. J., Holtmaat, A. J. G. D., de Lang, H., Spierenburg, H., & et al. (1993). Peptide-induced grooming behavior and caudate nucleus dopamine release: Brain Research Vol 625(1) Oct 1993, 169-172. *Frigon, C., & Desparmet, J. (2006). Un traitement a l'ondansetron pour un enfant atteint d'un prurit chronique refractaire: Pain Research & Management Vol 11(4) Win 2006, 245-247. *Fujikawa, M., Yamada, K., Nagashima, M., & Furukawa, T. (1995). Involvement of !b-adrenoceptors in regulation of the yawning induced by neuropeptides, oxytocin and !a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, in rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 50(3) Mar 1995, 339-343. *Giraudo, S. Q., Billington, C. J., & Levine, A. S. (1998). Feeding effects of hypothalamic injection of malanocortin 4 receptor ligands: Brain Research Vol 809(2) Nov 1998, 302-306. *Gispen, W. H., Isaacson, R. L., Spruijt, B. M., & de Wied, D. (1986). Melanocortins, neural plasticity and aging: Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry Vol 10(3-5) 1986, 415-426. *Goldman, H., & Berman, R. F. (1984). Reduction of amygdaloid kindled seizures by an analog of ACTH/MSH: Peptides Vol 5(6) Nov-Dec 1984, 1061-1065. *Gonzalez, M. I., Vaziri, S., & Wilson, C. A. (1996). Behavioral effects of alpha -MSH and MCH after central administration in the female rat: Peptides Vol 17(1) 1996, 171-177. *Goyal, S. N., Kokare, D. M., Chopde, C. T., & Subhedar, N. K. (2006). Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone antagonizes antidepressant-like effect of neuropeptide Y in Porsolt's test in rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 85(2) Oct 2006, 369-377. *Gruber, K. A., & Callahan, M. F. (1991). Peptides derived from ACTH and the N-terminal region of pro-opiomelanocortin in the regulation of central autonomic drive. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. *Hagan, M. M., Rushing, P. A., Schwartz, M. W., Yagaloff, K. A., Burn, P., Woods, S. C., et al. (1999). Role of the CNS melanocortin system in the response to overfeeding: Journal of Neuroscience Vol 19(6) Mar 1999, 2362-2367. *Hansen, M. J., Ball, M. J., & Morris, M. J. (2001). Enhanced inhibitory feeding response to alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone in the diet-induced obese rat: Brain Research Vol 892(1) Feb 2001, 130-137. *Hansen, M. J., & Morris, M. J. (2002). Evidence for an interaction between neuropeptide Y and the melancortin-4 receptor on feeding in the rat: Neuropharmacology Vol 42(6) May 2002, 792-797. *Harris, R. B. S., Zhou, J., Shi, M., Redmann, S., Mynatt, R. L., & Ryan, D. H. (2001). Overexpression of agouti protein and stress responsiveness in mice: Physiology & Behavior Vol 73(4) Jul 2001, 599-608. *Hillebrand, J. J. G., Kas, M. J. H., Scheurink, A. J. W., van Dijk, G., & Adan, R. A. H. (2006). AgRP-sub((83-132)) and SHU9119 differently affect activity-based anorexia: European Neuropsychopharmacology Vol 16(6) Aug 2006, 403-412. *Hirsch, M. D., & et al. (1984). Structural and conformational modifications of !a-MSH/ACTH-sub(4-20 ) provide melanotropin analogues with highly potent behavioral activities: Peptides Vol 5(6) Nov-Dec 1984, 1197-1201. *Hirsch, M. D., & O'Donohue, T. L. (1986). Structural modifications of pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides alter their behavioral effects markedly: Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics Vol 237(2) May 1986, 378-385. *Hlinak, Z., & Krejci, I. (1991). Modulation of social memory in rats by alaptide, a derivative of MIF: Homeostasis in Health and Disease Vol 33(5-6) Apr 1991, 262-273. *Hol, T., & Spruijt, B. M. (1992). The MSH/ACTH(4-9) analog Org2766 counteracts isolation-induced enhanced social behavior via the amygdala: Peptides Vol 13(3) May-Jun 1992, 541-544. *Karkaeva, N. R., Bazhan, N. M., Yakovleva, T. V., & Makarova, E. N. (2005). Function o f the Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal-Adrenal System in Mice with Ectopic Hyperproduction of the Agouti Protein: Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology Vol 35(2) Feb 2005, 187-191. *Kask, A., & Schioth, H. B. (2000). Tonic inhibition of food intake during inactive phase is reversed by the injection of the melanocortin receptor antagonist into the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and central amygdala of the rat: Brain Research Vol 887(2) Dec 2000, 460-464. *Kavaliers, M. (1987). MIF-1 and Tyr-MIF-1 antagonize morphine and opioid but not non-opioid stress-induced analgesia in the snail, Cepaea nemoralis: Peptides Vol 8(1) Jan-Feb 1987, 1-5. *Kim, Y., & Carr, J. A. (1997). Alterations in brain and plasma concentrations of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone during habituation of prey-catching behavior in toads: Brain, Behavior and Evolution Vol 49(3) Mar 1997, 149-161. *Kokare, D. M., Chopde, C. T., & Subhedar, N. K. (2006). Participation of alpha -melanocyte stimulating hormone in ethanol-induced anxiolysis and withdrawal anxiety in rats: Neuropharmacology Vol 51(3) Sep 2006, 536-545. *Kokare, D. M., Dandekar, M. P., Chopde, C. T., & Subhedar, N. (2005). Interaction between neuropeptide Y and alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone in amygdala regulates anxiety in rats: Brain Research Vol 1043(1-2) May 2005, 107-114. *Maes, M., DeJonckheere, C., Vandervorst, C., Schotte, C., & et al. (1991). Abnormal pituitary function during melancholia: Reduced !a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone secretion and increased intact ACTH-non-suppression: Journal of Affective Disorders Vol 22(3) Jul 1991, 149-157. *Martin, J. T., Bradshaw, W., Miczek, K., & Baum, M. J. (1987). Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone infusions during pregnancy in the rat: Effects on offspring weight, pain reactivity and sexual behavior: Psychoneuroendocrinology Vol 12(6) 1987, 439-448. *McBride, R. B., Beckwith, B. E., Swenson, R. R., Sawyer, T. K., & et al. (1994). The actions of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) on passive avoidance in rats: A preliminary study: Peptides Vol 15(4) 1994, 757-759. *McLaughlin, C. R., Lichtman, A. H., Fanselow, M. S., & Cramer, C. P. (1989). Pro-Leu-Gly-NH-sub-2 serves as a conditioned stimulus in the acquisition of conditioned tolerance: Behavioral Neuroscience Vol 103(2) Apr 1989, 447-451. *Meador-Woodruff, J. H., Silk, K. R., Kronfol, Z., Watson, S. J., & et al. (1989). !g-Melanotropin and !b-endorphin after dexamethasone: Biological Psychiatry Vol 25(7) Apr 1989, 975-976. *Miller, L. H., & Turnbull, B. A. (1986). The effect of MSH/ACTH 4-20 on delayed response performance and post-test locomotor activity in rats: Peptides Vol 7(2) Mar-Apr 1986, 207-205. *Milligan, E. D., Nguyen, K. T., Deak, T., Hinde, J. L., Fleshner, M., Watkins, L. R., et al. (1998). The long term acute phase-like responses that follow acute stressor exposure are blocked by alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone: Brain Research Vol 810(1-2) Nov 1998, 48-58. *Monzon, M. E., Varas, M. M., & De Barioglio, S. R. (2001). Anxiogenesis induced by nitric oxide synthase inhibition and anxiolytic effect of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) in rat brain: Peptides Vol 22(7) Jul 2001, 1043-1047. *Morgan, C., Thomas, R. E., & Cone, R. D. (2004). Melanocortin-5 receptor deficiency promotes defensive behavior in male mice: Hormones and Behavior Vol 45(1) Jan 2004, 58-63. *Morgan, C., Thomas, R. E., Ma, W., Novotny, M. V., & Cone, R. D. (2004). Melanocortin-5 Receptor Deficiency Reduces a Pheromonal Signal for Aggression in Male Mice: Chemical Senses Vol 29(2) Feb 2004, 111-115. *Moriya, J., Takimoto, Y., Yoshiuchi, K., Shimosawa, T., & Akabayashi, A. (2006). Plasma agouti-related protein levels in women with anorexia nervosa: Psychoneuroendocrinology Vol 31(9) Oct 2006, 1057-1061. *Morphy, M. A., Fava, G. A., Pedersen, R. C., Zielezny, M., & et al. (1990). Effects of metyrapone and dexamethasone upon pro-gamma-MSH plasma levels in depressed patients and healthy controls: Journal of Affective Disorders Vol 19(3) Jul 1990, 183-189. *Mosconi, G., Carnevali, O., Facchinetti, F., Radi, D., & et al. (1994). Ovarian melanotropic peptides and adaptation in two teleostean species: Sparus aurata L. and Dicentrarchus labrax L: Peptides Vol 15(5) 1994, 927-931. *Mucha, R. F., & Van Ree, J. M. (1989). Infusion of !g-sub-2-MSH produce a conditioned taste aversion in morphine-dependent rats: Psychopharmacology Vol 99(1) Sep 1989, 140-142. *No authorship, i. (2003). Part I. Melanocortin structure/function and melanocortin agonists/antagonists. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences. *No authorship, i. (2003). Part II. Peripheral non-pigmentary actions of melanocortins. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences. *No authorship, i. (2003). Part III. CNS physiology. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences. *No authorship, i. (2003). Part IV. The pigmentary system. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences. *Olsen, C. M., Lovering, A. T., & Carr, J. A. (1999). alpha -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone and habituation of prey-catching behavior in the Texas toad, Bufo speciosus: Hormones and Behavior Vol 36(1) Aug 1999, 62-69. *Olszewski, P. K., Wirth, M. M., Grace, M. K., Levine, A. S., & Giraudo, S. Q. (2001). Evidence of interactions between melanocortin and opioid systems in regulation of feeding: Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research Vol 12(8) Jun 2001, 1727-1730. *Oohara, M., Negishi, M., Shimizu, H., Sato, N., & et al. (1993). !a-Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) antagonizes the anorexia by corticotropin releasing factor (CRF): Life Sciences Vol 53(19) 1993, 1473-1477. *Ott, M. C., Mishra, R. K., & Johnson, R. L. (1996). Modulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission in the 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned rotational model by peptidomimetic analogues of l-prolyl-l-leucyl-glycinamide: Brain Research Vol 737(1-2) Oct 1996, 287-291. *Panksepp, J., & Abbott, B. B. (1990). Modulation of separation distress by !a-MSH: Peptides Vol 11(4) Jul-Aug 1990, 647-653. *Panksepp, J., & Normansell, L. (1990). Effects of ACTH(1-24) and ACTH/MSH(4-20) on isolation-induced distress vocalization in domestic chicks: Peptides Vol 11(5) Sep-Oct 1990, 915-919. *Panksepp, J., & Normansell, L. (1990). Effects of ACTH(1superscript 24) and ACTH/MSH(4-20) on isolation-induced distress vocalization in domestic chicks: Peptides Vol 11(5) Sep-Oct 1990, 915-919. *Paterson, A. T., & Vickers, C. (1985). Stimulation of aggression in male mice by !a-MSH and its relation to light phase and to saline intake effects: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 15(3) May 1985, 183-189. *Pitsikas, N., Spruijt, B. M., Algeri, S., & Gispen, W. H. (1990). The ACTH/MSH(4-9) analog Org2766 improves retrieval of information after a fimbria fornix transection: Peptides Vol 11(5) Sep-Oct 1990, 911-914. *Poggioli, R., Vergoni, A. V., & Bertolini, A. (1986). ACTH-(1-24) and alpha -MSH antagonize feeding behavior stimulated by kappa opiate agonists: Peptides Vol 7(5) Sep-Oct 1986, 843-848. *Poggioli, R., Vergoni, A. V., & Bertolini, A. (1986). ACTH-(1superscript 24) and !a-MSH antagonize feeding behavior stimulated by kappa opiate agonists: Peptides Vol 7(5) Sep-Oct 1986, 843-848. *Racca, S., Spaccamiglio, A., Esculapio, P., Abbadessa, G., Cangemi, L., DiCarlo, F., et al. (2005). Effects of swim stress and alpha -MSH acute pre-treatment on brain 5-HT transporter and corticosterone receptor: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 81(4) Aug 2005, 894-900. *Raible, L. H. (1986). Effect of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone on lordosis: Role of estrogen, progesterone, and serotonin: Dissertation Abstracts International. *Raible, L. H. (1988). Inhibitory action of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone on lordosis in rats: Possible involvement of serotonin: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 30(1) May 1988, 37-43. *Raible, L. H., & Gorzalka, B. B. (1986). Short and long term inhibitory actions of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone on lordosis in rats: Peptides Vol 7(4) Jul-Aug 1986, 581-586. *Raible, L. H., & Knickerbocker, D. (1993). !a-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) and: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 44(3) Mar 1993, 533-538. *Rao, T. L., Kokare, D. M., Sarkar, S., Khisti, R. T., Chopde, C. T., & Subhedar, N. (2003). GABAergic agents prevent alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone induced anxiety and anorexia in rats: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 76(3-4) Dec 2003, 417-423. *Ravid, R., Swaab, D. F., Van der Woude, T. P., & Boer, G. J. (1986). Immunocytochemically stained binding sites for oxytocin and !a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in rat brain following ventricular administration: Brain Research Vol 379(2) Aug 1986, 404-408. *Resch, G. E., & Simpson, C. W. (1991). Effects of central alpha-MSH injections on performance in a cued discrimination task: Peptides Vol 12(5) Sep-Oct 1991, 929-936. *Rossler, A.-S., Pfaus, J. G., Kia, H. K., Bernabe, J., Alexandre, L., & Giuliano, F. (2006). The melanocortin agonist, melanotan II, enhances proceptive sexual behaviors in the female rat: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 85(3) Nov 2006, 514-521. *Sabatier, N., Caquineau, C., Dayanithi, G., Bull, P., Douglas, A. J., Guan, X. M. M., et al. (2003). alpha -Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Stimulates Oxytocin Release from the Dendrites of Hypothalamic Neurons While Inhibiting Oxytocin Release from Their Terminals in the Neurohypophysis: Journal of Neuroscience Vol 23(32) Nov 2003, 10351-10358. *Sahgal, A. (1984). Adrenocorticotrophic hormone and melanocyte stimulating hormone do not affect performance in hippocampus-lesioned or control pigeons: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 14(1) Oct 1984, 9-15. *Sanchez, M., Baker, B. I., & Celis, M. (1997). Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) antagonzies the effects of alpha -MSH and neuropeptide E-I on grooming and locomotor activities in the rat: Peptides Vol 18(3) 1997, 393-396. *Sandman, C. A., & Yessaian, N. (1986). Persisting subsensitivity of the striatal dopamine system after fetal exposure to !b-endorphin: Life Sciences Vol 39(19) Nov 1986, 1755-1763. *Sandyk, R. (1989). Melanocyte-stimulating hormone in tardive dyskinesia: Biological Psychiatry Vol 26(2) Jun 1989, 213-214. *Sandyk, R. (1989). Neuroleptic-induced akathisia: A role for MSH peptides: Psychopharmacology Vol 99(1) Sep 1989, 134-135. *Sandyk, R. (1990). Melanocyte-stimulating hormone and persistent tardive dyskinesia: A hypothesis: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 51(1-2) Mar 1990, 45-52. *Sandyk, R. (1990). MIF-induced augmentation of melatonin functions: Possible relevance to mechanisms of action of MIF-1 in movement disorders: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 52(1-2) May 1990, 59-65. *Sandyk, R. (1990). Seborrhea and persistent tardive dyskinesia: International Journal of Neuroscience Vol 50(3-4) Feb 1990, 223-226. *Schiml-Webb, P. A., Deak, T., Greenlee, T. M., Maken, D., & Hennessy, M. B. (2006). Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone reduces putative stress-induced sickness behaviors in isolated guinea pig pups: Behavioural Brain Research Vol 168(2) Mar 2006, 326-330. *Shimakura, S.-I., Miura, T., Maruyama, K., Nakamachi, T., Uchiyama, M., Kageyama, H., et al. (2008). alpha -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone mediates melanin-concentrating hormone-induced anorexigenic action in goldfish: Hormones and Behavior Vol 53(2) Feb 2008, 323-328. *Shimazaki, T., & Chaki, S. (2005). Anxiolytic-like effect of a selective and non-peptidergic melanocortin 4 receptor antagonist, MCL0129, in a social interaction test: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 80(3) Mar 2005, 395-400. *Sita, L. V., Elias, C. F., & Bittencourt, J. C. (2003). Dopamine and melanin-concentrating hormone neurons are distinct populations in the rat rostromedial zona incerta: Brain Research Vol 970(1-2) Apr 2003, 232-237. *Smolnik, R., Perras, B., Molle, M., Fehm, H. L., & Born, J. (2000). Event-related brain potentials and working memory function in healthy humans after single-dose and prolonged intranasal administration of adrenocorticotropin 4-10 and desacetyl-alpha -melanocyte stimulating hormone: Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology Vol 20(4) Aug 2000, 445-454. *Sonino, N., Fava, G. A., Morphy, M. A., & Pedersen, R. C. (1990). Effects of metyrapone and dexamethasone on pro-gamma-MSH and ACTH levels in depressed patients: European Neuropsychopharmacology Vol 1(1) Nov 1990, 63-65. *Spruijt, B. M., de Graan, P. N., Eberle, A. N., & Gispen, W. H. (1985). Comparison of structural requirements of !a-MSH and ACTH for inducing excessive grooming and pigment dispersion: Peptides Vol 6(6) Nov-Dec 1985, 1185-1189. *Steiger, A., Guldner, J., Knisatschek, H., Rothe, B., & et al. (1991). Effects of an ACTH/MSH(4-9) analog (HOE 427) on the sleep EEG and nocturnal hormonal secretion in humans: Peptides Vol 12(5) Sep-Oct 1991, 1007-1010. *Strader, A. D., Schioth, H. B., & Buntin, J. D. (2003). The role of the melanocortin system and the melanocortin-4 receptor in ring dove (Streptopelia risoria) feeding behavior: Brain Research Vol 960(1-2) Jan 2003, 112-121. *Sulcova, A., & Krejci, I. (1991). Effects of MIF-1 and its cyclic derivative alaptide on agonistic behaviour in mice: Homeostasis in Health and Disease Vol 33(4) Dec 1991, 167-168. *Tatro, J. B. (1990). Melanotropin receptors in the brain are differentially distributed and recognize both corticotropin and !a-melanocyte stimulating hormone: Brain Research Vol 536(1-2) Dec 1990, 124-132. *Telegdy, G., Kovacs, G. L., Szabo, G., & Balaspiri, L. (1988). Antiamnestic effects of prolyl-leucyl-glycinamide (MIF) and related compounds: Activitas Nervosa Superior Vol 30(3) Sep 1988, 211-214. *Telegdy, G., Vecsei, L., Bollok, I., & Schally, A. V. (1986). The effect of !b-(Tyr-9)melanotropin-(9-18) on active avoidance behavior, electroconvulsive shock-induced amnesia and T-discrimination learning of rats: Peptides Vol 7(1) Jan-Feb 1986, 11-13. *Tinius, T. P., Beckwith, B. E., Wagner, N., Tinius, K. A., & et al. (1986). Differential actions of arginine vasopressin and alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone on reactivation of memory after hypothermia-induced amnesia: Physiological Psychology Vol 14(1-2) Mar & Jun 1986, 15-22. *Torre, E., & Celis, M. E. (1986). Alpha-MSH injected into the substantia nigra or intraventricularly alters behavior and the striatal dopaminergic activity: Neurochemistry International Vol 9(1) 1986, 85-89. *Torre, E., & Celis, M. E. (1988). Cholinergic mediation in the ventral tegmental area of !a-melanotropin induced excessive grooming: Changes of the dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens and caudate putamen: Life Sciences Vol 42(17) 1988, 1651-1657. *Tsujii, S., & Bray, G. A. (1989). Acetylation alters the feeding response to MSH and beta-endorphin: Brain Research Bulletin Vol 23(3) Sep 1989, 165-169. *Van Erp, A. M., Kruk, M. R., Semple, D. M., & Verbeet, D. W. (1993). Initiation of self-grooming in resting rats by local PVH infusion of oxytocin but not !a-MSH: Brain Research Vol 607(1-2) Apr 1993, 108-112. *Van Erp, A. M., Kruk, M. R., Van Oers, H. J., Hemmers, N. M., & et al. (1993). Differential effect of ACTH-sub(1-24 ) and alpha -MSH induced grooming in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus: Brain Research Vol 603(2) Feb 1993, 296-301. *Van Erp, A. M., Kruk, M. R., Van Oers, H. J., Hemmers, N. M., & et al. (1993). Differential effect of ACTH-sub(1superscript 24 ) and !a-MSH induced grooming in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus: Brain Research Vol 603(2) Feb 1993, 296-301. *Venkatesan, S., & Carr, J. A. (2001). Distribution of neuronal melanocortins in the spadefoot toad Spea multiplicata and effects of stress: Brain, Behavior and Evolution Vol 57(3) Mar 2001, 150-160. *Williams, D. L., Grill, H. J., & Kaplan, J. M. (2004). Food deprivation after treatment blocks the multiple-day hyperphagic response to SHU9119 administration: Brain Research Vol 996(2) Jan 2004, 180-186. *Wolterink, G., Van Zanten, E., & Van Ree, J. M. (1990). Functional recovery after destruction of dopamine systems in the nucleus accumbens of rats: IV. Delay by intra-accumbal treatment with ORG 2766- or !a-MSH antiserum: Brain Research Vol 507(1) Jan 1990, 115-120. *Yehuda, S., & Sheleff, P. (1985). The effects of MIF-I, !b-endorphin and !a-MSH on d-amphetamine induced paradoxical behavioral thermoregulation: Possible involvement of the dopaminergic system: Peptides Vol 6(2) Mar-Apr 1985, 189-192. *Zvejniece, L., Muceniece, R., Krigere, L., Dambrova, M., & Klusa, V. Z. (2006). The differential influences of melanocortins on nociception in the formalin and tail flick tests: Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior Vol 85(2) Oct 2006, 287-291. External links * Category:Peptides Category:Anterior pituitary hormones